Mapping the Impacts and Conflicts of Rare-Earth Elements

Nov 28, 2023 | Mariana Walter, Claudia Custodio, Volahery Andriamanantenasoa, and John Feffer
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Rare-earth elements (REEs) are a group of 17 chemical elements considered critical for digitalization and for the energy transition. While called “rare”, they are not in fact rare in the Earth’s crust and can be found in many places. 

According to the US Geological Survey (USGS), in 2022 China was responsible for 70% (210,000 metric tons) of global REE production, followed by the US (14.3%), Australia (6%), Myanmar (4%), Thailand (2.4%), Vietnam (1.4%), India (0.96%), Russia (0.86%), Madagascar (0.32%) and Brazil, among others.

REEs are usually found in low concentrations. As a result, huge amounts of ore need to be processed to obtain small amounts of REEs, creating large piles of waste. Moreover, REEs are usually combined, which means large amounts of energy and materials are required to separate them. Finally, in many cases REEs coincide with radioactive and hazardous elements. Consequently, mining, beneficiation, separation and refining are potential sources of hazardous waste and pollutants for water, soil, air and human bodies.